Hume D. On the Origin of Government
Essay 4, 5, 6
Extracts from Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France
(1790)
The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies
Ch.18, Liberalism
Ch.25. Nationalism
Hume D. On the Origin of Government
David Hume (1711-1776) was a famous Scottish philosopher, historian, economist and essayist in the eighteenth-century. He is considered one of the pioneers of the school of empiricism. Starting a treatise on human nature in the years (1739-40), Hume sought to develop a naturalistic science of humanity so that he could study the psychological basis of human nature (Waldron). He argued against the existence of inherent beliefs, stating that all human knowledge comes solely from experience.
According to him, with the perspective of the past, humanity cannot dictate future events because the thoughts of the past are limited compared to the possibilities of the future (Buckle).
His views on the philosophy of religion, including the rejection of miracles and the argument for the existence of God, were controversial, especially for his time. In moral theory, contrary to the popular view that God plays an important role in the creation and strengthening of moral values, he proposed one of the first fully secular moral theories to instate morality in the consequences of human actions (Waldron). In epistemology, Hume questioned the common concepts of personal identity, arguing that there is no permanent "self" that persists over time. In economic theory, he criticized social contracting and economic theory with his anti-marketing views. At the same time, economic thinkers such as Adam Smith, William Godwin and Thomas Malthus were influenced by Hume's theories (Buckle). Apart from all Hume's attitudes, scholars and pundits have always debated Hume’s thoughts on the origin of government, which is preserved in essays written by him.
Essay IV: Of the First Principles of Government
Hume believed that political society did not come into being for the sake of justice, but that political society came into being from war. In the war of supremacy, one caused him to impose his authority on others. According to Hume, force is the cause of government formation. Although society was created by force, it cannot be maintained by force, but it preserves the principle of benefit for the people and public opinion (Waldron). Historically, a small number have always been able to rule the vast majority, because the majority of people have always felt that being in power is in their best interest. Sometimes someone may not want to obey the government, but he/she is forced to obey because of public opinion. On the other word, public opinion is so effective that governments can use it to create conditions that everyone has to obey (Hume, Essay 4).
Hume sought the roots of organized society in the benefit of individuals, believing that this individual alone could not meet all of his needs as a human being. Thus, the interests of individuals dictate that they live in an organized society, that is, under the rule of a government. Hume considered the monarchy to be superior to all forms of government and believed that this political system had advantages in terms of freedom (Buckle). In his view, the form of monarchy is more stable and suitable for the continuous advancement of true freedom than the other forms of government. He wrote in praise of his ancient government, “let us cherish and improve our ancient government as much as possible, without encouraging a passion for such dangerous novelties” (Hume, Essay 4).
Essay V: Of the Origin of Government
The treatise discusses the roots and ethical principles of government formation. According to Hume, man is inherently a social being and lives as a family. The same human being who is born in an environment called the family is forced to maintain society. This feeling comes from necessity, natural inclination and habit (Buckle). Likewise, justice plays an important role in creating a political society. Therefore, the main goal of establishing a government in human societies is to "distribute justice". Hume claims that the main reason why people do not follow justice is "deviations in nature" (Hume, Essay 5).
Hume describes, all human beings are aware of the need for justice in order to establish peace and order in society, but the weakness or deviation of human nature is such that it prefers its fleeting interests to social justice. Thus, a justice institution should be established with the aim of punishing wrongdoing and correcting fraud and violence, in order to take into account the public interest (Hume, Essay 5). In addition, he argues that obedience is a new duty that people must accept to uphold justice. On the other hand, the duty of the government is to satisfy the people. People who play a key role in government institutions get their position from the people's satisfaction (Waldron).
According to Hume, the prince or leader must have qualities such as courage, strength, unity or resourcefulness, because when authority is matched by obedience, a stable society is created (Hume, Essay 5). In all governments there is a constant struggle between power and freedom, but none of them can completely win this race. Although freedom is the perfection of civil society, primarily authority is essential to the existence of civil society (Buckle). Yet even an authority that restricts freedom in society should never be fully controllable in any constitution. The government is allowed to impose taxes, but trying to gain people's lives and wealth is not acceptable (Hume, Essay 5).
Essay VI: Of the Independency of Parliament
David Hume believed that when thinking about politics, we should imagine that every man pursues his personal interests often at the expense of the public interest. Without this, we will be proud of the benefits of any constitution in vain, and in the end, we will see that we have no security for our freedom and property, except the goodwill of the rulers (Hume, Essay 6). According to Hume, we may consider that men in private are more honest than their public capacity and strive to serve the population more than their personal interests do. However, where a significant number of men work together, this confidence will be greatly diminished (Waldron). In addition, a larger number of votes determines each court or Senate. Thus, if personal interests affect the majority, the entire Senate will follow the attractiveness of those separate interests. In this way, it behaves as if there is no member in it who cares about the public interest and freedom. Hume explains that parliamentary democracy is superior to direct democracy. A parliamentary government with power sharing and establishing some features of federalism is less disposed to corruption, factionalism and cruel treatment of the people (Hume, Essay 6). Thus, only a brief examination of Hume's three essays reveals how profound and instructive his writings on the principles of politics and government are.
Extracts from Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
Reflections on the French Revolution is a political booklet written by the Irish-English philosopher, writer, orator and politician "Edmund Burke" and published in November 1790. This valuable article has become one of the most famous writings of Burke, and recognized by political theorists as a rich source. Burke represented the "Whig Party" in the "House of Commons". From the beginning, he pursued many liberal goals and sided with the Americans in their fight for independence (Monk). Burke believed that parties in a country, regardless of ideology, are a factor in the stability of society. Parties prevent the worsening of society's problems and the spread of discontent through timely criticism and peaceful protests. In such an environment, the people stabilize and change the authorities with their votes in the elections, and the possibility of coups and revolutions without control and plan decreases (Parkin).
Criticizing the French Revolution, Burke described it as an immature process that would dismantle the structure of government and pose a threat to the stability and security of Europe (Burke, 1790). With a brief overview of the French Revolution, it is easier to understand Burke's ideas. The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of socio-political change in the political history of France and Europe at the hands of the French people, which, after many difficulties, led to the change of the monarchy (Monk). Many contemporary revolution thinkers believe that despite all efforts, the result of the French Revolution did not lead to a democracy, rather violent unrest, including executions and repressions, the Napoleonic Wars, and the restoration of the monarchy accompanied it (Parkin). Thus, less than a century after the French Revolution, various regimes such as republics, dictatorships, constitutional monarchies, and two different empires ruled (Monk).
Burke believed that because the French Revolution was not organized and arose spontaneously and was driven by protests and street demonstrations, it would soon lead to violence and lawlessness. The order of society is destroyed and all the structures and achievements of the French throughout history are ruined for at least a generation (Monk). At the time, opponents and allies alike marveled at the strength of his belief that the French Revolution was a disaster and that the revolutionaries "a stylish population." (Burke, 1790). As Parkin states, Burke, who expressed his theory in the early years of the French Revolution, predicted that the French Revolution would end in adversity and defeat after a period of destruction. This situation and disorder prepares the ground for the emergence of a dictator.
According to Burke, the government official should be the mediator of the people, and the ruler should carefully examine and resolve any small dissatisfaction of the people (Burke, 1790). He believed that if Louis XVI (King of France) had paid attention to the will of the people in time, no rebellion would have taken place and his neck would not have been guillotined. Burke argued, protesters had low expectations in the early days, but because they did not receive a response, their numbers increased and they lost control (Parkin). In general, Burke's reflections on the French Revolution show a complexity of the political conditions of that time. Burke's writings in his time were an important source of inspiration for ideas opposed to the French Revolution.
Liberalism
Liberalism is one of the most influential philosophical doctrine that has clearly presented its principles in three philosophical, political and economic fields. Liberalism - both in its current political sense and in the sense of its intellectual tradition - is almost a modern phenomenon that dates back to the seventeenth century, although some liberal philosophers believe that the roots of liberalism go back to ancient times, especially ancient Greece (Girvetz). However, most theorists believe that it certainly originated in the 19th century.
Liberalism is generally divided into five types: cultural liberalism, religious liberalism, moral liberalism, economic liberalism, and political liberalism. Different branches of liberalism may propose different policies, but they are all united in several respects; including the expansion of freedom of thought and expression, the limitation of the power of states, the important role of law, the free exchange of ideas, and the free market economy (Freeden, et al.). As Girvetz describes, Liberalism has historically struggled with obstacles to individual freedoms such as the denial of individuality, religious bigotry, absolute power, and the deprivation of the right to vote. According to this doctrine, human beings are created equal, so all people must have the equal right to life, freedom, and speech.Liberals are in favor of civil society (Girvetz). It means a society where people can freely engage in economic and political activities, and the government interferes less in their affairs, also everyone follows their conscience freely in their religious affairs and no opinion is imposed on the people (Freeden, et al.).
As Girvetz states, the term Liberalism refers to the views or policies of those whose primary orientation in politics is to maintain a certain degree of freedom. Liberalism has traditionally been a movement that showed that people in general are not subject to authoritarian rule, but are protected by law in their private lives. Modern liberalism has its roots in the Enlightenment era. It combines ideas of civil liberty and equality with support for social justice and a mixed economy (Girvetz). According to modern liberalism, the main task of government is to remove difficulties that prevent individuals from living freely or from fully understanding their potential. In general, liberalism places a strong emphasis on the rights of individuals and equality of opportunity (Freeden, et al.). Classical liberalism is a branch of liberalism that advocates for civil liberties under the law, with an emphasis on economic freedom, developed in the early nineteenth century based on the ideas of the Industrial Revolution in Europe and North America (Girvetz).
In short, political liberalism advocates individual and social freedoms. In the economic field, believes in reducing the role and power of the government (free market) and the right to accumulate capital and personal property. It is also believed that human problems will be solved if world affairs return to normal. Equality will be established if we do not disrupt the natural order of society and allow people to act according to their wishes (Freeden, et al.). The interference of individuals or governments in the affairs causes the disruption of the economic and political order of the society. The first liberal thinkers believed that the public could choose the path to their own happiness and that there was no need for a hierarchy of clergy and laity to set tasks for the people (Girvetz). Generally, liberalism is a way of thought that has many opponents and defenders around the world, so it is important and crucial to examine the various aspects of this philosophical view.
Nationalism
Nationalism means a sense of belonging to the nation. A nation is a group of people, with a common culture, race, and language who gather around a government or intend to form a government. The collapse of empires, the evolution of traditional societies, the industrial revolution, and the resulting economic growth paved the way for the emergence of the nation-state (Kohn). Nationalists emphasize on unities such as historical backgrounds, language, race, social and moral values, and culture to build national identity. It was in the late eighteenth century that nationalism emerged as a well-known public sentiment. It spread to Central Europe and from there to Eastern Europe in the early 19th century. At the beginning of the twentieth century, nationalism flourished in Asia and Africa. Thus, the 19th century in Europe is called the "golden age" of nationalism (Freeden, et al.).
During this period, under the influence of the French Revolution, movements calling for national unity emerged in Germany, Italy, Ireland, Belgium, Hungary, Poland, Finland, and the Balkans. In this way, attention and interest in the language, history, traditions and national culture were revived along with these movements (Stanford). According to Kohn, politically, nationalism can be considered as an ideology that emphasizes on the superiority of one nation over other nations. Nevertheless, extremist nationalism can lead to the creation of dangerous governments and political systems (such as the Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 40s). Of course, nationalism should not be confused with racism, because a nation can include many races and ethnicities.
Among the first theorists of nationalism, we can mention Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu. Jefferson and Thomas Payne founded American nationalism. In England, English nationalism culminated with Bentham and Goldstone. Victor Hugo in France and Bismarck in Germany were the flagships of nationalism. In addition, in Italy, Garibaldi and Mozini were among the greatest theorists of the nationalist school (Stanford). As Kohn discussed, Nationalism also emerged in Islamic countries. Egypt and Turkey were at the forefront of this intellectual movement. One of the most obvious signs of nationalism in the Middle East is Kurdish nationalism. The movement believes that the land of the Kurdish people or Kurdistan, where the Kurdish ethnic group is the majority, should establish an independent Kurdish state by separating from its main countries.
Today, international organizations, such as the United Nations, the European Union, the Organization of American States, and the Organization of African Unity, work to curb extreme nationalism and emphasize on cooperation between nations (Kohn). In my opinion, patriotism is sacred as far as love for the mother tongue, ancestral traditions, cultural heritage and national pride is concerned, and can even be a symbol of human civilization. However, if nationalism is accompanied by extreme prejudice and a tendency to enslave and dominate other nations, it will certainly lead to arrogant patriotism.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the first section briefly discussed one of the most influential philosophers of the eighteenth century, David Hume. Although it is a little difficult to understand Hume's writings but it explains the basics of anthropology and sociology and the principles of government well. He had a very profound influence on the history of philosophy with his writings and ideas. In the second part (Reflections on the French Revolution); a brief reference was made to Edmund Burke's way of thinking about the French Revolution. Burke argued that the French Revolution would end tragically because the foundations of its formation seem logical but ignore the complexities of human nature and society. In the third part, there was a brief discussion about liberalism. Although it is difficult to provide a precise and comprehensive definition of the principles and foundations of liberalism and its forms as a political and social doctrine, however, theorists on this issue have offered several definitions. Finally, there was a brief discussion of nationalism. In one word, nationalism has feelings rooted in the idea of building a society with a common linguistic, religious, moral and belief identity. The most important point in the discussion of nationalism is the non-mixing of fanatical nationalism and sacred patriotism. In my opinion, all the writings and articles that famous philosophers have left us from the distant past are very rich, valuable and thought-provoking works. These teachings are the basis of many political and economic structures in the present age.
Works Cited
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Hume, David, Essay 5. “On the Origin of Government.” Online Library of Liberty. April 13, 2016. https://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/hume-on-the-origin-of-government
Hume, David. Essay 6. “Essays Moral, Political and Literary.” Wisc. 2017.
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Parkin, Charles William. "Edmund Burke: British philosopher and statesman." Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, University of Cambridge. 2020.
"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy." Nationalism. Nov 29, 2001, substantive revision. Sep 2, 2020. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nationalism/
Waldron, Jeremy. "Political Theory." Oxford; Inaugural Lecture. May 3, 2012.
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